Indus Valley Civilization: Overview
Indus Valley Civilization or the Harappan Civilization is known as the earliest and the oldest civilization in India. The early years of this civilization were between 3300-1300 BCE, and the later years were between 2600-1900 BCE. However, it is speculated that the southern sites of the civilization may have lasted even later into the 2nd millennium BCE. There were three earliest civilizations in the world: Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus civilization. This civilization is believed to be the most extensive of the three even though Mesopotamia and Egyptian civilizations started before it.
(Image will be Uploaded soon)
Ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization
Early discovery of this civilization was first made in 1921 at Harappa in the Punjab region giving it the name of Harappan Civilization. A year later in 1922, another site was identified at Mohenjo-Daro (Mohenjodaro), near the Indus River in the Sindh (Sind) region. The Indus Valley Civilization map extends along the Indus River, between present-day northeast Afghanistan, into Pakistan and northwest India.
The civilization consisted of two large cities, Harappa and Mohenjodaro, covering more than 100 small towns and villages. Each of the two cities was originally about 1 mile (1.6 km) square in overall size. Archaeologists suggest that Harappa may have succeeded Mohenjo-Daro, which was believed to have been destroyed by floods more than once. The Population of Harappa was estimated to be 23,500–35,000 and for Mohenjo-Daro, the numbers were 35,000–41,250.
Early Excavations
John Faithfull Fleet, an English civil servant employed with the Indian Civil Services, discovered many Harappan seals in 1912. This paved the way for an excavation campaign in 1921-1922 led by Sir John Hubert Marshall, the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India. The excavation resulted in the discovery of Harappa and most of Mohenjo-Daro by 1931. Further excavations were led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, the next director of the Archaeological Survey of India. More than 1,056 cities and settlements of the Indus Civilization were identified by 1999.
Infrastructure
Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and the recently excavated Rakhigarhi were a civilization with the world’s first known urban sanitation systems. The sewerage and drainage systems used throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than those found in other urban sites in the Middle East. Those systems were even more efficient than the ones used in several areas of India and Pakistan even today. Every home had a system to draw water from wells and the wastewater went to covered drains made on the main streets. Even the smallest homes on the outskirts of the cities were connected to the drainage system. The extensive drainage and trash collection systems reflected that the people of the civilization gave a lot of importance to cleanliness. The ruins also suggested that there were public granaries and baths. The cities had citadels and large walls. Exceptional urban planning reflects the elaborate sewerage systems, baked brick houses, water supply systems, and blocks of non-residential buildings.
Society and Political System of the Harappan Civilization
The divergence of the house types and evidence of localized groups in crafts suggests that there was some sort of social stratification. Well-planned infrastructure and civic structures like granaries and the use of weights in trades indicate an organized political and administrative system.
Occupation
The people of the Indus era followed the Mesopotamian irrigation model of agriculture and eventually developed the skills to reap the benefits of the vast and fertile Indus River valley. They also managed to learn to control the exceptional annual floods that fertilized the soil but also caused destruction. They sustained primarily on farming supplemented by trade. Six-row barley, wheat, mustard, sesame, field peas, and a few date stones were found in the excavations, along with traces of cotton. Humped and shorthorn cattle, cats, dogs, and domestic fowl were among the domesticated animals. It is possible that they also kept camels, pigs, and buffaloes along with the Asian elephants whose ivory tusks were of great use.
Craft, Technology and Artifacts of the Indus Civilization
Crude stone sculptures of seated men and animals in bronze were found at the sites. Standing females with jewelry, standing males with horns and beards, and a standing nude male sculpted in terra-cotta found in Harappa were possibly used for worship. Cast-bronze figures of small chariots, dancing girls, animals, and carts showed the excellence of the people in crafts, technology, and arts. Anatomically detailed figures and toys made in terra-cotta, bronze, and steatite demonstrated their craftsmanship in developed art. There was evidence of a painting tradition as painted pottery was found. Vessels and tools made out of copper and bronze were made using processes like casting and hammering. Other metals used were gold, silver, lead, shell, ivory, and carnelians used in making beads.
Harappans were thought to have been highly skilled in the art of seal carving. The Harappan seals were not only a reflection of their art but also played a role in their trade. Patterns were cut into the bottom face of a seal. The seals used for stamping clay on trade goods and the identification of property were quite distinct. Some were decorated with animal figures, such as tigers, elephants, and water buffalo, and were among the prominent artifacts. More than 600 Indus symbols were found engraved on these seals. The Swastika symbol was also depicted on some of them in the Indus Valley Civilization.
FAQs on Indus Valley Civilization
1. What was the Indus Valley Civilization most famous for?
The Indus Valley Civilization, flourishing around 2500-1900 BCE, is most famous for its sophisticated urban planning. Cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa featured a grid-like street layout, advanced drainage and sanitation systems, and the use of standardised baked bricks, showcasing a level of civil engineering that was unparalleled for its time.
2. Why is the Indus Valley Civilization also called the Harappan Civilization?
It is also called the Harappan Civilization because Harappa was the very first archaeological site of this culture to be discovered and excavated in the 1920s. Following archaeological convention, ancient civilizations are often named after their first-discovered site. Therefore, the terms Indus Valley Civilization and Harappan Civilization are used interchangeably.
3. What were the most remarkable features of town planning in Harappan cities?
The most remarkable features of Harappan town planning demonstrate a highly organized society. Key aspects include:
- Grid Layout: Streets were laid out in a precise grid pattern, intersecting at right angles.
- Zoning: Cities were typically divided into two parts: a raised area called the citadel for important public structures, and a larger lower town for residential housing.
- Advanced Drainage: Every house was connected to a sophisticated network of covered drains that ran along the streets, a feature not seen in other ancient civilizations of the time.
- Standardised Bricks: They used standardised, kiln-fired bricks in a uniform ratio (1:2:4) for construction across all their settlements.
4. What evidence suggests the existence of extensive trade in the Harappan Civilization?
Several pieces of evidence point to extensive trade. Archaeologists have found numerous seals from the Indus Valley in distant lands like Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), indicating long-distance commerce. The discovery of a large dockyard at Lothal in Gujarat suggests maritime trade. Furthermore, the use of standardised weights and measures across the vast region points to a regulated system of trade and commerce.
5. What can we infer about the religious beliefs of the Indus Valley people?
While their script is undeciphered, we can infer their religious beliefs from artefacts. The worship of a Mother Goddess is suggested by numerous terracotta female figurines. A prominent seal, often called the 'Pashupati Seal', depicts a seated figure surrounded by animals, which some scholars interpret as an early form of the Hindu god Shiva. Structures like the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro were likely used for ritual purification, and evidence of fire altars at sites like Kalibangan suggests ritual practices.
6. What are some of the most important archaeological sites of the Indus Valley Civilization?
Some of the most important excavated sites that provide insight into the civilization include:
- Harappa: The first site discovered, known for its granaries and cemeteries.
- Mohenjo-daro: Known for the Great Bath, the Great Granary, and its well-planned streets.
- Dholavira: A site in Gujarat famous for its unique water management system and a large 'signboard' of ten Harappan symbols.
- Lothal: A key port city in Gujarat with a large man-made dockyard.
- Kalibangan: Located in Rajasthan, it is known for its ploughed field surface and fire altars.
7. Why is the Harappan script still considered an enigma?
The Harappan script remains an enigma primarily because it has not yet been deciphered. There are two main challenges: the inscriptions found are extremely short, usually just a few characters on seals, and no bilingual text (like the Rosetta Stone, which had the same text in two known languages) has ever been found to help crack the code. Until it is deciphered, our understanding of their governance and society remains incomplete.
8. What are the main theories explaining the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization?
There is no single, universally accepted reason for the decline. Historians propose several theories, often suggesting a combination of factors. The leading theories include gradual climate change leading to the drying up of rivers like the Ghaggar-Hakra, shifts in monsoon patterns affecting agriculture, major floods, and a decline in trade with Mesopotamia. The older theory of an Aryan invasion is now largely discredited by most scholars.
